Educational Theorists

Yesterday’s educational theorists have left us a valuable legacy in the form of philosophies and ideas that have significantly impacted today’s educational beliefs and practices. The purpose of this assignment is to identify six well-known educational theorists, both recent and contemporary, whose research findings have influenced contemporary educational thought and analyze how their ideas have impacted today’s PK-12 classrooms. We were to refer to our course textbooks and identify additional print and digital resources to complete the information on the chart in the assignment instructions document and write several (4-6) sentences or bullet points about each theorist’s main ideas and (4-6) sentences or bullet points about how these ideas can be applied in the classroom.

Carol Dweck

Main theoretical ideas

• Growth Mindset: Intelligence can be developed through effort and perseverance.
• Power of “Yet”: Encourages students to view challenges as opportunities for growth with the phrase “not yet” rather than “can’t.”
• Response to Challenges: With a growth mindset, individuals embrace challenges and persist despite setbacks.
• Impact of Praise: Praising effort fosters a growth mindset.
• Self-Theories: Students’ beliefs about their abilities influence their motivation and achievement.
• Neuroplasticity: Understanding that the brain can grow and change with practice and learning.

Applications In the classroom

• Praise Effort and Strategy: Focus on praising the process, not innate ability.
• Normalize Mistakes: Create a classroom culture that sees mistakes as learning opportunities.
• Set Learning Goals: Encourage students to set mastery rather than performance goals.
• Encourage Reflection: Allow students to self-reflect on their learning and set future targets.
• Growth-Oriented Feedback: Provide specific, actionable feedback that focuses on improvement.
• Model a Growth Mindset: Share personal learning stories emphasizing perseverance and learning.

Citations and/or References

• Claro, S., Paunesku, D., & Dweck, C. S. (2016). Growth mindset tempers the effects of poverty on academic achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(31), 8664–8668. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1608207113
• Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273.
• Stanford Alumni. (2014). Developing a growth mindset with Carol Dweck [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiiEeMN7vbQ  

Howard Gardner

Main theoretical ideas

• Eight Distinct Intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.
• Diversity in Learning: Each individual has a unique combination of intelligences, leading to different ways of learning and understanding.
• Intelligences Are Malleable: Skills can be developed and enhanced through appropriate learning experiences.
• Beyond IQ Testing: Traditional IQ tests are limited in measuring the full range of human intelligence.
• Application to Education: Instruction should cater to different types of intelligences to engage students effectively.
• Criticism and Adaptation: Gardner’s theory has faced criticism but continues to evolve with ongoing research.

Applications In the classroom

• Differentiated Instruction: Design lessons to cater to multiple intelligences.
• Assessment Variety: Use diverse assessment methods, such as projects, presentations, and performances.
• Learning Centers: Create classroom learning centers that target different intelligences.
• Collaborative Learning: Foster group activities where students learn from peers with different strengths.
• Individualized Learning Plans: Develop personalized learning plans that address each student’s strengths.
• Enrichment Activities: Provide extracurricular activities aligned with various intelligences, like music, drama, and sports.  

Citations and/or References

• Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Educational implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4–10. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X018008004
• Hutchinson, A. (2017). Multiple Intelligence Theory-Howard Gardner [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHMzELRpLr0
• Shearer, C. B., & Karanian, J. M. (2017). The neuroscience of intelligence: Empirical support for the theory of multiple intelligences? Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 6, 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2017.02.002  

Robert Gagne

Main theoretical ideas

• Five Categories of Learning Outcomes: Verbal Information, Intellectual Skills, Cognitive Strategies, Motor Skills, and Attitudes.
• Nine Events of Instruction: Gain Attention, Inform Learners of Objectives, Stimulate Recall, Present Content, Provide Guidance, Elicit Performance, Provide Feedback, Assess Performance, Enhance Retention.
• Cognitive Information Processing Model: Learning involves the interaction of external events with the learner’s internal mental processes.
• Hierarchical Learning: Learning should progress from simple to complex skills.
• Instructional Design: Effective instructional design requires careful planning and structuring of learning activities.
• Instructional Systems Development (ISD): A systematic approach to designing instruction based on learner needs.

Applications In the classroom

• Nine Events in Lesson Planning: Incorporate all nine instructional events in lesson design.
• Scaffold Learning: Build learning experiences progressively, from simple to complex.
• Learning Outcomes: Define and align learning outcomes with instructional activities.
• Feedback Mechanisms: Provide timely and constructive feedback to guide learners.
• Assessment Aligned with Outcomes: Use assessments that align with and measure specific learning outcomes.
• Differentiated Instruction: Adapt lessons to cater to different types of learning outcomes.

Citations and/or References

• Priise, K. (2017). Gagne conditions of learning [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBh5w8Dz0w0
• Reiser, R. A. (2012). Conditions of learning. In N. M. Seel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 751–756). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_117
• Ullmer, E. J. (1975). Principles of instructional design Robert M. Gagné Leslie J. Briggs. AV Communication Review, 23(1), 104–109.  

Jean Piaget

Main theoretical ideas

• Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.
• Schema Theory: Cognitive structures that organize knowledge and guide behavior.
• Assimilation and Accommodation: Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.
• Accommodation: Adjusting existing schemas to fit new information.
• Egocentrism: Young children have difficulty seeing the world from perspectives other than their own.
• Constructivism: Learners actively construct knowledge through exploration and discovery.
• Equilibration: Balancing assimilation and accommodation to achieve cognitive stability.

Applications In the classroom

• Stage-Appropriate Activities: Design activities suited to each cognitive stage.
• Hands-on Learning: Provide concrete materials for younger learners to manipulate and explore.
• Inquiry-Based Learning: Encourage exploration, questioning, and drawing conclusions.
• Collaborative Learning: Facilitate group activities where students share ideas and solve problems together.
• Scaffold Instruction: Offer guidance and support as students progress through tasks.
• Formative Assessment: Use formative assessments to understand students’ current developmental stage.  

Citations and/or References

• Khan Academy. (2013). Piaget’s stages of cognitive development [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jt3-PIC2nCs
• Louren, O., & Machado, A. (1996). In defense of Piaget’s Theory: A reply to 10 common criticisms.
• Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 703–732). Wiley.  

Lev Vygotsky

Main theoretical ideas

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.
• Scaffolding: Support provided to learners within their ZPD to help them achieve tasks.
• Social Interaction: Learning is a social process that occurs through interactions with more knowledgeable others.
• Cultural Tools: Language, symbols, and other cultural tools shape cognitive development.
• Private Speech: Children use self-directed speech to guide their own behavior.
• Mediation: More knowledgeable individuals mediate the learner’s understanding through guided interaction.  

Applications In the classroom

• Scaffold Instruction: Provide graduated support, reducing it as learners become more competent.
• Collaborative Learning: Implement group work where students can learn from each other.
• Think-Alouds: Encourage students to verbalize their thinking processes.
• Zone of Proximal Development: Identify and provide tasks within the learner’s ZPD.
• Role of Teacher as Facilitator: Act as a guide, providing appropriate student support.
• Use of Cultural Tools: Integrate language and symbols that are meaningful to students’ cultural contexts.

Citations and/or References

• Digital Learning Consultant. (2017). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kTIUAZbKidw
• Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional implications and teachers’ professional development. English Language Teaching, 3(4), p237. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v3n4p237
• Vygotskiĭ, L. S., & Kozulin, A. (1986). Thought and language (Translation newly rev. and edited). MIT Press.  

Harry Wong

Main theoretical ideas

• Classroom Procedures and Routines: Establish clear and consistent classroom procedures and routines to maximize instructional time and minimize disruptions.
• First Days of School: The first days of school are crucial in setting the tone for the rest of the year. Teachers should build relationships, set expectations, and establish classroom procedures.
• High Expectations: Teachers should set high expectations for all students and consistently communicate these expectations, emphasizing that all students can succeed.
• Positive Relationships: Building positive relationships with students is key to effective classroom management. Teachers should create a welcoming, respectful, and inclusive classroom environment.
• Effective Instructional Practices: Use clear objectives, structured lessons, and frequent assessment to ensure student understanding and engagement.
• Professionalism and Continuous Improvement: Teachers should approach teaching as a profession and continuously seek to improve their skills through reflection, collaboration, and professional development.

Applications In the classroom

• Establish Clear Procedures and Routines: Develop and consistently implement procedures for activities like entering the classroom, transitioning between tasks, and handing in assignments.
• First-Day Plans: Prepare a detailed plan for the first days of school to introduce classroom rules, routines, and procedures.
• Consistent Expectations: Clearly communicate classroom expectations to students and reinforce them regularly through positive reinforcement and consistent consequences.
• Building Positive Relationships: Greet students at the door, show interest in their lives, and maintain a positive attitude to foster a supportive environment.
• Effective Lesson Planning: Design lessons with clear objectives, engaging activities, and frequent formative assessments to monitor student progress.
• Reflect and Improve: Regularly reflect on teaching practices, seek colleague feedback, and participate in professional development opportunities to enhance classroom management skills.  

Citations and/or References

• Eisenman, G., Edwards, S., & Cushman, C. A. (2015). Bringing reality to classroom management in teacher education. 39(1).
• Glavac, M. (2018). Harry Wong on classroom management, discipline, behaviour problems and more [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vasEREzSWQk
• Wong, H. K., & Wong, R. T. (2009). First days of school: How to be an effective teacher (4th ed.). Wong, Harry K. Publications.